Phagocytosis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Phagocytosis is the cellular process of phagocytes and protists of engulfing solid particles by the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome, which is a food vacuole, or pteroid. Phagocytosis is a specific form of endocytosis involving the vesicular internalization of solid particles, such as bacteria, and is therefore distinct from other forms of endocytosis such as pinocytosis, the vesicular internalization of various liquids. Phagocytosis is involved in the acquisition of nutrients for some cells, and in the immune system it is a major mechanism used to remove pathogens and cell debris. Bacteria, dead tissue cells, and small mineral particles are all examples of objects that may be phagocytosed.
The process is only homologous to eating at the level of single-celled organisms; in multicellular animals, the process has been adapted to eliminate debris and pathogens, as opposed to taking in fuel for cellular processes, except in the case of the Trichoplax.
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[edit] In immune system
- For more details on this topic, see phagocyte.
Phagocytosis in mammalian immune cells is activated by attachment to Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), which leads to NF-κB activation. Opsonins such as C3b and antibodies can act as attachment sites and aid phagocytosis of pathogens.[1]
Engulfment of material is facilitated by the actin-myosin contractile system. The phagosome of ingested material is then fused with the lysosome, leading to degradation
Degradation can be oxygen-dependent or oxygen-independent.
- Oxygen-dependent degradation depends on NADPH and the production of reactive oxygen species. Hydrogen peroxide and myeloperoxidase activate a halogenating system which leads to the destruction of bacteria.
- Oxygen-independent degradation depends on the release of granules, containing proteolytic enzymes such as defensins, lysozyme and cationic proteins. Other antimicrobial peptides are present in these granules, including lactoferrin which sequesters iron to provide unfavourable growth conditions for bacteria.
It is possible for cells other than dedicated phagocytes (such as dendritic cells) to engage in phagocytosis.[2]
[edit] In Apoptosis
Following apoptosis, the dying cells need to be taken up into the surrounding tissues by macrophages in a process called Efferocytosis. One of the features of an apoptotic cell is the presentation of a variety of intracellular molecules on the cell surface, such as Calreticulin, Phosphatidylserine (From the inner layer of the plasma membrane), Annexin A1 and oxidised LDL. These molecules are recognised by receptors on the cell surface of the macrophage such as the Phosphatidylserine Receptor, or by soluble (free floating) receptors such as Thrombospondin 1, Gas-6 and MFG-E8, which then themselves bind to other receptors on the macrophage such as CD36 and Alpha-V Beta-3 Integrin.
[edit] In protists
In many protists, phagocytosis is used as a means of feeding, providing part or all of their nourishment. This is called phagotrophic nutrition, as distinguished from osmotrophic nutrition, which takes place by absorption.
- In some, such as amoeba, phagocytosis takes place by surrounding the target object with pseudopods, as in animal phagocytes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.[3] This process is known as "erythrophagocystosis", and is considered the only reliable way to distinguish Entamoeba histolytica from noninvasive species such as Entamoeba dispar.[4]
- Ciliates also engage in phagocytosis.[5] In ciliates there is a specialized groove or chamber in the cell where phagocytosis takes place, called the cytostome or mouth.
The resulting phagosome may be merged with lysosomes containing digestive enzymes, forming a phagolysosome. The food particles will then be digested, and the released nutrients are diffused or transported into the cytosol for use in other metabolic processes.
Mixotrophy can involve phagotrophic nutrition and phototrophic nutrition.[6]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ The Immune System, Peter Parham, Garland Science, 2nd edition
- ^ Ishimoto H, Yanagihara K, Araki N, et al. (July 2008). "Single-cell observation of phagocytosis by human blood dendritic cells". Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 61 (4): 294–7. PMID 18653972. http://www.nih.go.jp/JJID/61/294.html.
- ^ Boettner DR, Huston CD, Linford AS, et al. (January 2008). "Entamoeba histolytica phagocytosis of human erythrocytes involves PATMK, a member of the transmembrane kinase family". PLoS Pathog. 4 (1): e8. doi:. PMID 18208324. PMC: 2211552. http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.0040008.
- ^ "DPDx - Amebiasis". http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/DPDx/html/Amebiasis.htm. Retrieved on 2008-12-30.
- ^ Grønlien HK, Berg T, Løvlie AM (July 2002). "In the polymorphic ciliate Tetrahymena vorax, the non-selective phagocytosis seen in microstomes changes to a highly selective process in macrostomes". J. Exp. Biol. 205 (Pt 14): 2089–97. PMID 12089212. http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12089212.
- ^ Stibor H, Sommer U (April 2003). "Mixotrophy of a photosynthetic flagellate viewed from an optimal foraging perspective". Protist 154 (1): 91–8. PMID 12812372.
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