Dingling

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may require copy-editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone or spelling. You can assist by editing it now.  (November 2007)

Dingling and Tiele

Total population
300,000－approx. 2-3 million (Rough conversion based upon the ratio 1:5 [soldier or yurt/people] provided by Jia Yi and imitation of Li Chengqian from the number of yurt [落户 luohu] and portion of soldier [兵 bing])[1]
Regions with significant populations
Siberian taiga (pre-1st century), Mongolian Orkhon-Selenge forest steppe (majority to the north of Tuul River loops), northern Chinese provinces, Altay Mountains, Xinjiang (Dzungaria) and Pontic-Caspian steppe (by 6th century)[2]
Languages
Turkic languages
Religion
Shaman cults (pre-7th century), Buddhism, Manichaeism and Islam (post-10th century)[3][4]
Related ethnic groups
Xiongnu, Tuoba, and later Turkic peoples

The Dingling (丁零) were an ancient Siberian people. They originally lived on the bank of the Lena River in the area west of Lake Baikal, gradually moving southward to Mongolia and northern China. They were subsequently part of the Xiongnu Empire.^[5][6]

Around the 3^rd century they were assimilated into the Gaoche (高車) or Chile (敕勒). From these emerged the Tiele (鐵勒) who gradually expanded westward into Central Asia.

Contents 1 Naming and etymology 2 Dingling 2.1 Religious beliefs and culture 2.2 Origin and migration 2.3 Dingling and Xiongnu 2.4 Assimilation 3 Gaoche and Chile 3.1 Fufuluo 4 Tiele 4.1 Emergence of the Tiele 4.2 The Xueyantuo 4.3 Chinese subjugation 4.4 Rise of the Uyghur Qaghanate 4.5 The On Oq Connection 4.6 Turgesh and Chebishi 5 Yeniseian Theory 6 Rulers of Gaoche 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources

[edit] Naming and etymology

Although the words Dingling, Gaoche, Chile and Tiele (as in modern Mandarin pronunciation of pinyin romanisation) are often used interchangeably, this usage is erroneous as pointed out by modern academia.

• Dingling refers to an extinct ethnic group.
• The Gaoche, later Chile, were a tribe, descended in part from the Dingling, that was expelled from Mongolia by the Rouran and founded a state (487-541) at Turpan.
• The Tiele were a collection of tribes of different Turkic ethnic origins, largely descended from the Chile.

All groups somewhat happened to occupy a similar geographical area in succession of each other.

[edit] Dingling

[edit] Religious beliefs and culture

The cultural aspects of the Dingling can be observed from the Noin-Ula excavations in northern Mongolia. There were a total of 212 tumulis. the Noin-Ula mountains, called Tzun-Mode by the local population, are chiefly grown with pine, their higher zones with larch and cedar.^[7]

The burial finds were divided into three groups by Trever:^[8]

• Imported Chinese objects, such as silk embroidery
• Objects coming from the West, not from Greece and her Near Eastern colonies, but belonging to the culture of the Bactrian upper classes and Parthian Iran, both impregnated with Hellenistic culture
• Object of local workmanship

The objects of Chinese origin are more or less well known, as W.P. Yetts mentioned them in his article. Some of the objects contain Taoist elements and ideographs, from silk embroidered with scrolled clouds and horsemen, and a lacquered bowl decorated with birds. On a damask design, a horseman holds an object from which ascends a cloud of vapour. The Chinese ideographs read:

"hsin shen ling kuang ch'eng shou wan nien" (新神灵广成寿万年) meaning "renews spirituality and extends longevity to a myriad years". An accompanying inscriptions dispels all doubts as to their identity, for they are called "hsien jen" (仙境), Taoist illuminates or fairies. Yetts adds that the philosopher "Guang Cheng" is a prominent figure in Taoist myth, who had been regarded as an early incarnation of Laozi.^[9]

The lacquered cup has an incised inscription too, which was deciphered by Prof. Otto Kümmel and Umehara Sueji:

"September of the 5th year of the Chein-p'ing (2 BCE)". The manufacturer is "Wang-t'an-ching", the painter of the decoration "Huo", another manufacturer "I'", superintended by "Pien Wu" (建平五年九月工王潭经画工获壶大武省). Two other signs on the bottom of the cup are according to Yetts to be read as "Shang lin" (上林, which is the name of a park to the west of Chang'an, capital of Western Han) The identity of the buried is not known.^[10]

The "western" objects reached the Xiongnu through trade, being the result of the commercial capital of the ancient world having penetrated into the remotest regions of the East. From countries producing articles of luxury, such as Bactria, impregnated as it was with Hellenistic culture, merchants imported goods into the land of the Xiongnu. This is probably what called into life the remarkable local art of wool embroidery destined for the use of the princes. In Chinese technic and with the use of local dyes made of plants, Hellenistic plant motives and realistic images of the chiefs, with all the details of clothing, way of hair dressing and horsegear are depicted.

From literary sources we have some knowledge of the upper classes' daily life: The dead princes are buried in two coffins, an outer and inner one. Their clothes are of gold and silver brocade and fur. Nothing is known about the burial customs of the ordinary people.^[11]

[edit] Origin and migration

Little is known about the origin of the Dingling. They were a warlike group of hunters, fishers, and gatherers of the southern Siberian mountain taiga region from Lake Baikal to northern Mongolia. Chinese records do not mention the physical appearance of the Dingling, and their name appears rarely.^[12][13][14]

It is not certain whether an earlier name for them existed, but they might have been correlated with the Guifang (鬼方), a northern tribe that appears in the oracle bone inscriptions from Yinxu during the 1st millennium BCE.^[15]

According to the History of the Gaoche of Wei Shou (6th c.), the origin of the Dingling can be traced to the fabled Chidi (赤狄), who lived in northern China during the Spring and Autumn period. The Mozi mentions a total of eight Di groups related to the Chidi, of whom only the Chidi and two others were known.^[16][17]

To the north of the Xiongnu empire and Dingling territories, at the headwaters of the Yenisei around Tannu Uriankhai, lived the Gekun (鬲昆), also known as the Yenisei Kirghiz in later records. Further to the west near the Irtysh river lived the Hujie (呼揭). Other tribes living north of the Xiongnu, such as the Hunyu (浑庾), Qushe (屈射), and Xinli (薪犁), are only mentioneed once in Chinese records, and their exact location is unknown.^[18][19]

During the 2nd century BCE, the Dingling became subjects of Modu Chanyu along with 26 other tribes, including the Yuezhi and Wusun.^[20]

[edit] Dingling and Xiongnu

The Dingling were first subjugated by the Xiongnu, but these gradually weakened. In 71 BCE, after numerous conflicts between the Chinese and the Xiongnu, the Dingling, with help from neighboring tribes, took the opportunity to revolt. From 60 to 63 BCE, during a split within the Xiongnu ruling clan of Luanti (挛鞮), the Dingling attacked the Xiongnu, together with the Wusun, supported by the Chinese, from the west and the Wuhuan from the southeast.^[21]

In 51 BCE, they were, together with the Hujie and Gekun, defeated by the Xiongnu under Zhizhi Chanyu, on his way to Kangju. Over the next century there may have been more uprisings, but the only recorded one was in the year 85, when together with the Xianbei they made their final attack on the Xiongnu.^[22] After that, the Dingling were assimilated into the remaining northern Xiongnu and the Toba under the confederacy of Xianbei chief Tanshihuai (檀石槐). After his death in 181, the Xianbei moved south and the Dingling took their place on the steppe. Over the next few centuries, the Dingling firmly established themselves on the steppe, becoming known as the Gaoche, and later, the Tiele.^[23]

[edit] Assimilation

Between the short-lived Xianbei confederacy in 181 and the foundation of the Rouran Qaghanate in 402, there was a long period without a tribal league on the steppe. During this period, a part of the Dingling were assimilated to the northern Xiongnu by permanently settling further to the south.^[24] Another group, documented as about 450,000, moved southeast and merged into the Xianbei.

After the defeat of Northern Shanyu (1st century), deduced from the number of casualties and immigrants, an estimated figure of 200,000 is given for the Xiongnu still remaining on the northern steppe. Remnants of the Xiongnu managed to keep their identity until the early 5th century, living on the Orkhon River under the tribal name Bayeqi (拔也稽) before being eliminated by the Rouran.^[25]

Some groups of Dingling settled in China during Wang Mang's reign. According to the Weilue, another group of Dingling escaped to the western steppe in Kazakhstan. Around the 3rd century, Dinglings living in China began to adopt family names such as Zhai, Xianyu (鲜于), Luo (洛) and Yan (严) .^[26] These Dingling became part of the southern Xiongnu tribes known as Chile (赤勒) during the 3rd century, from which the name Chile (敕勒) originated.

During the Sixteen Kingdoms period the Dingling founded the Wei state under Zhai Liao .^[27]

About one-quarter of the Toba clans show similar names as within the later Gaoche and Tiele tribes. Among them, the Hegu (紇骨) and Yizhan (乙旃) clans, kept their high status and were forbidden to intermarry with the rest.

Between the 4th and 7th century, the name "Dingling" slowly disappeared from Chinese records.

[edit] Gaoche and Chile

The name "Chile" and "Gaoche" first appear in Chinese records during the campaigns of Former Yan and Dai in 357 and 363 respectively. However, the protagonists were also addressed as "Dingling" in the records of the Southern Dynasties.^[28] The name gao (high) che (cart) was a byname given by the Chinese, and were explained by the sources below:^[29][30]

The Gaoche spoke a language very similar to the language of the earlier Xiongnu.^[31]

By the time of the Rouran domination, the Gaoche comprised six tribes^[32] and twelve clans^[33], belonging to the bigger Tiele tribal grouping of the Göktürks period.^[34][35] The Gaoche were ruled by the Rouran. One group known as Fufuluo, led by their chieftain A-Fuzhiluo (阿伏至罗), escaped and founded a state at Turpan between 487－541.^[36]

The Gaoche migrate in search of grass and water. They dress in skins and eat meat. Their cattle and sheep are just like those of the Rouran, but the wheel of their carts are high and have very many spokes.

—Weishu, 103

The progenitors of Huihe were Xiongnu because of their custom of riding the high-wheeled carts. They were also called Gaoche during the Yuan Wei [Northern Wei 386－534] times, or Chile, which is an alternate name to Tiele.

—Xin Tangshu, 232

No records of the exact distribution of the Gaoche tribes survived. One group known as the Eastern Gaoche (东部高车) probably dwelled from the Onon River to Lake Baikal (巳尼陂). However, their relationship with the rest of the Gaoche and its tribal components are unclear.^[37]

The involvement of the Gaoche with the Rouran began after 391, when the Rouran chief, Heduohan (曷多汗), was killed by the Touba Northern Wei. Heduohan's son Shelun raided several tribal dependencies of the Touba in retaliation, but reportedly suffered a serious defeat in 399, and was forced to flee westward. Here Shelun defeated the Hulu (斛律) tribe and subjugated them. With the aid of a Hulu named Chiluohou (叱洛侯), Shelun conquered most of the Gaoche tribes and proclaimed himself Kaghan of the Rouran on March 11, 402. Many Gaoche, such as Chiluohou, were promoted to establish better control.^[38][39]

During the reign of Shelun and his successor Datan, the Rouran pushed as far as the Issyk Kul, where they defeated the Wusun and drove them to the south. In the east they raided the Northern Wei before they were defeated on June 16, 429.^[40][41] Afterwards, as many as 1.5 million Gaoche were said to be captured and settled to areas adjacent to the capital Pingcheng in the south.

After this settlement they were called the Western Chile (西部敕勒), including a section of the Ordos Desert south of the Yellow River known as the Hexi Chile [河西敕勒]), the Eastern Chile (东部敕勒), between Wuzhou (武周) and the capital suburbs), and the Northern Chile (北部敕勒), to the north and around the borders.

The greater part of the latter two possibly fled back to the steppe and were not heard of after 524 and 445 respectively. The Western Chile [mainly the Hulu and Tiele (叱利), related to Fufuluo's Qifuli clan (泣伏利)] rebelled between 524－526, then moved further south and eventually became assimilated.^[42]

With the loss of numerous subjects and vital resources, the Rouran went into a temporary decline. However, in 460 they launched new campaigns in the west, destroying the remnant of Northern Liang. During a campaign against Khotan, the king wrote in his supplicatory letter to the Toba Emperor in 470 that all of the statelets in the west had submitted to the Rouran. In 472, Yucheng attacked across the western border into Northern Wei. By the time of his death in 485, Yucheng had restored the Kaghanate to a status even more powerful than the times of Datan.

During these wars, a southwestern Gaoche tribal group known as the Fufuluo united twelve clans and rebelled, but were defeated by the Rouran. They escaped and established a state northwest of Gaochang in 487. From then on, little was known about the rest of the Gaoche on the steppe prior to the Göktürks. The Fufuluo allied with the Northern Wei in 490 and fought against the Rouran until 541 when they were dispersed by them.^[43]

[edit] Fufuluo

The Fufuluo (副伏罗) were a Gaoche tribe of twelve clans, dwelling close to the Gaochang kingdom (likely by the Tuin River of the Govi-Altai range. Early on a Fufuluo clan known as the Yizhan (which had lived there since the mid 2nd century) allied with the Touba.^[44] In 481, the Fufuluo began to interfere with the Gaochang and deposed one of their kings. After the dead of Yucheng, his belligerent son Dulun fought more wars against the Touba.

After a disagreement, A-Fuzhiluo betrayed him, and in 487, together with his younger cousin Qiongqi (穷奇), they managed their clans of over 100,000 yurts to escape from the pursuing armies, led by Dulun and his uncle Nagai by defeating them.

After they settled, he founded a statelet (also known as the A-Fuzhiluo kingdom) under the title of Ulu Beglik (候娄匐勒, based on an interpretation of Shiratori Kurakichi and Pulleyblank). Like the later Qibi and Xueyantuo in 605, the Fufuluo divided their rule between north and south at Dzungaria.^[30][45] Shortly after the death of Dulun in 492, several important cities on the eastern route were taken by Fufuluo, separating the Rouran from the west. With the elimination of Rouran influence, the Hephthalites, kindred steppe nomads, for the first time extended their domain as far as Karashahr, where Qiongqi was killed and his son Mietu (弥俄突) was taken hostage.

Though there is no firm date for the Hephthalite expansion to the east, after 507 they uninterruptedly sent eighteen embassies with gifts (朝献/朝贡) to the Chinese courts (twelve to Northern Wei, three to Liang Dynasty, two to Western Wei and one to Northern Zhou), as opposed to only one in 456.^[46] Like Peroz I and his son Kavadh I earlier in the west, the Hephthalites helped Mietu. He returned to his realm and Biliyan (跋利延), the successor of A-Fuzhiluo, was overthrown by his tribesmen, while shortly paying tribute to the Touba. In 508, Futu attacked the Fufuluo and gained a victory, but was killed by Mietu on his course back. Later in 516, Chounu, son of Futu, defeated Mietu, and in reprisal had him towed to death by a horse. The Fufuluo went for several years into exile under the refuge of the Hephthalites. In 520, Chounu was his repulsed by his younger brother Yifu (伊匐) who restored the realm. After his defeat, Chounu returned to the east, where he was killed in a coup in which the ruling clan of Yujiulu (郁久闾) was split into two factions. In 521, the Fufuluo penetrated into the Rouran territory, but were finally repulsed by 524. Thereafter, the Fufuluo suffered a series of defeats from Anagui before being annihilated in 541. During the final decade, they helped the Eastern Wei to fight the Western Wei in a civil war. After defeat, the nobility surrendered to them.^[47]

[edit] Tiele

[edit] Emergence of the Tiele

In 546 the remainder of the Fufuluo, now called Tiele rebelled and were defeated by Bumin Khan at the Dzungaria. Around 250,000 of them were then incorporated into his army. In 552, Bumin Khan sent his army and defeated Anagui just north of the Chinese border. Two years before his death, he eliminated the remnants of the Rouran to the north and subjected the Tiele .^[48][49]

Suribadalaha gives details on the tribes derived from the Suishu based on semantic evidences of Mongolic and Turkic languages and Chinese naming. They were divided into seven locations and over 40 tribes:^[50]

The forebears of the Tiele belonged to those Xiongnu descendants, having the largest divisions of tribes. They occupied the valleys, and were scattered across the vast region west of the Western Sea [Black Sea],

1. At the area north of the Duluo River (Tuul River), are the Pugu, Tongluo, Weihe (Orkhon Uyghur),^[51] Bayegu, Fuluo (Fufuluo), which were all called Sijin (Irkin). Other tribes such as Mengchen, Turuhe, Sijie, Hun (Hunyu), Hu, Xue (Huxue) and so forth, also dwelled in this area. They have a 20,000 strong invincible army.
2. In the regions west of Yiwu (Kumul), to the north of Yanqi (Karashahr), and close to the White Mountains (Tian Shan), come the abodes of the Qibi, Boluozhi, Yidie, Supo, Nahe, Wuhuan (Wuhu), Hegu (Kyrgyz),^[52] Yedie, Yunihuan (Yunihu) and so forth. They have a 20,000 strong invincible army.
3. Passing over the Gold Mountains (Altay Mountains) to the south west, are the Xueyantuo (Syr-Tardush), Dieleer, Shipan (Yueban), Daqi and so forth. They have an over 10,000 strong army.
4. Leaving these, we come to the regions north of Kang (Samarkand), close to the river A-De (Volga). Here dwell the Hedie (A-Die), Hejie, Bohu, Bigan, Juhai, Hebixi, Hecuo, Suba, Yemo, Keda and so forth. They have a 30,000 strong army.
5. At the west, to the east and west of the De Yi Sea (Caspian Sea), are the Sulu, Hesan (Hazar), Suoye, Miecu, Longhu (Sahu) and so forth. They have an over 8,000 strong army.
6. When we reach to the east of Fulin (the Byzantine Empire), are the Enqu, A-Lan (Alans), Beiru, Jiuli, Fuwahun and so forth. They have a near 20,000 strong army.
7. Lastly, in the regions south of the Northern Sea (Lake Baikal), dwell the Dubo (Tuva) and some other tribes.

The names of these tribes differ, but all of them can be classified as Tiele. The Tiele do not have a master, but are subjected to the both Eastern and Western Tujue respectively. They don't have a permanent residence, and move with the changes of grass and water. Their main characteristics are, firstly, they possessed great ferocity, and yet showed tolerance; secondly, they were good riders and archers; and thirdly, they showed greed without restraint, for they often made their living by looting. The tribes toward the west were more cultivated, for they bred cattle and sheep, but fewer horses. Since the Tujue had established a state, they were recruited as the auxiliary of empire and conquered both east and westward, annexing all of the northern regional lands.

The customs of the Tiele and Tujue are not much different. However a man of the Tiele lives in his wife's home after marriage and will not return to his own home with his wife until the birth of a child. In addition, the Tiele also bury their dead under the ground.

—Suishu, 84

The Tiele were a large tribal group, however its unlikely they would be under a unified leadership. References of the tribes in the remote areas west of the Pamir Mountains were sparse and mentioned only in passing (some like the Alans were probably erroneously added through misinformation). By the end of the 6^th century nothing more was known about them. Those tribes in the eastern areas (north of China and near Lake Baikal), such as the Guligan (骨利干), Duolange (多览葛) Xijie (奚结) and Baixi (白霫) were being rewarded afterward, though a few like the Fuluo (覆罗), Mengchen (蒙陈) and Turuhe (吐如纥) disappeared.^[53]

Like the Göktürks, the Tiele were probably one many nomadic Turkic peoples on the steppe. As some scholars noted the name "Tiele" and "Tujue" are semantically more or less alike. Their name was first interpreted as "Tölis" by Chavannes and Thomsen, but this was pointed out as inaccurate in 1937 by Cen Zhongmian, as Tölis applied to the Turkic title of official (突利失 Tulishi) in the east that also came to be attached to the qaghan. This view was later supported by Onogawa Hidemi in 1940, who also speculated on a Tiele origin for the Ashina clan.^[54]

The Tiele were ruled by the Göktürks during the mid 6^th century and early 7^th century. Many of their tribal chiefs were expelled and some had been killed during this period.^[55] They allied themselves in a rebelion against the Göktürks during the turmoil between 599 and 603. This might have already started as early as in 582, when rumor was spread about a revolt in the north when a raiding campaign led Ishbara away from the capital. Among the rivals of Ishbara in the west was Tardu, son of Istämi. He allied with Apa Khan, a qaghan at the northern Dzungaria and Khovd River, and declared himself independent.

In 587 Baga Khan, heir of Ishbara, captured Apa with the help of the Chinese but died the next year on a campaign in the west. Later on, Dulan took over his reign and in 599 he, together with Tardu, launched a civil war against his son Qimin, who sided with the Chinese. However, he was unsuccessful and was assassinated during his battles with the Chinese. His partner Tardu took over and launched a revolt against the Qaghanate. In 603 he was revolted against by the Tiele tribes, provoked by the Chinese, and fled to the Tuyuhun.^[56][57] Earlier, when Apa was captured, Nili took over from him, but he died after the defeat of Tardu in the east. His son Heshana Khan succeeded him in the Western Qaghanate, leviying heavy taxes on the Tiele. To prevent a revolt he gathered several hundreds of chiefs and murdered them. In 605 an alliance among the Tiele under the Qibi (契苾) and Xueyantuo (薛延陀) tribes was formed to overthrow him. They captured most of the Dzungaria and defeated his occupying army, taking several important cities, including Kumul, Karashahr and Gaochang, pushing Heshana Khan further west to the lower Ili River by 607.

After victory, the Qibi chief Geleng (哥楞) was proclaimed as the qaghan by the tribes and the Xueyantuo chief Yiedie Khan as subordinate qaghan. At the same year Geleng allied with the Chinese to defeat the Tuyuhun to resolve a conflict at Dunhuang.

In 611, Shekui, a qaghan from Tashkent and grandson of Tardu, attacked Chuluo and forced him to escape to China. The return of Shekui marked the end of the rebellion, although exactly when the rebels were put down is uncertain. One Chinese account indicated that the Gaochang kingdom still remained under their vassal until the year 612. They were most likely subdued after this year as Shekui restored order in the Western Qaghanate.^[58]

Failure to put down these uprisings led to a fatal division within the Turk's ruling Ashina clan. Under the leadership of Zhenzhu Khan in 628, grandson of Yishibo, the Xueyantuo made their crossing over the Altai, and quickly founded a confederation with the rest of the Tiele at the east.^[59]

[edit] The Xueyantuo

Initially the Xue and the Yantuo were two separate tribes. The Xue appeared earlier as Xinli but were not referred to again until the 7th century.^[30][60] After Yishibo, the Xueyantuo founded a short-lived Qaghanate over the steppe under Zhenzhu Khan, his son Duomi Khan and nephew Yitewushi Khan, the last of which eventually surrendered to the Chinese.

On March 27, 630, the Xueyantuo allied with the Chinese to defeat the Eastern Qaghanate in the Yin Mountains. Xieli Khan escaped, but was handed over to the Chinese by his subordinate qaghan on May 2.^[61][62] Thereafter the Xueyantuo dominated most of the northern steppe.

In 632 they repulsed an army of Si Yabgu Qaghan from the Western Qaghanate, then subjugated the Qarluq at the Ulungur and Irtysh River, and the Yenisei Kyrgyz tribes. In 634 one of their rivals, Dubu Qaghan (Ashina Shier), son of Chuluo Khan, who ruled much of the eastern half of the Western Qaghanate, was eliminated before escaping to China.^[63]

After that they maintained a friendly relationship with the Chinese until 639, when a raid on the Chinese capital was planned by the Turks under Ashina Jiedushuai (阿史那结社率), who had been disparaged by the Chinese emperor. He allied with his nephew Ashina Heluohu (阿史那贺逻鹘), choosing him as the leader of the raid on May 19. They were unsuccessful and over 40 rebels were executed. Heluohu was spared and expelled to the far south.^[64][65]

After this incident, an arraignment was made on August 13. A deportation of all Turks north of Ordos was carried out, in an attempt to restore the puppet Eastern Qaghanate as a barrier against the Xueyanto, to disperse their attention over the territorial competition in the west.

Among the Turk nobles, Ashina Simo was selected as the Göktürks qaghan (as Qilibi Khan) with his capital at the border. The plot failed, as he was unable to gather his people, many of his tribesmen having escaped to the south by 644 after a series of unsuccessful incursions by the Xueyantuo supported by the Chinese. Those defeats by the advancing Chinese had made their tribal allies lose confidence in them. The crisis deepened the next year when a coup d'état took place within the clan.

On August 1, 646, they were destroyed by the Huihu (回纥) and the Chinese. Their remnants were destroyed two years later, on September 15.^[66][67]

[edit] Chinese subjugation

Shortly after 646, the Huihe and the rest of the twelve Tiele chiefs (and subsequently the far-away Guligan and Dubo) arrived at the Chinese court. They were bestowed either with the title of commander-in-chief (都督 dudu) or prefect (刺史 cishi) under the loose control (羁縻 jimi) of the northern protectorate or "pacificed north" (安北府), whose seat and name changed at certain times.^[68]

The Huihe were prominent among the Tiele tribes next to the Xueyantuo. Their name first appeared in 390 as Yuanhe (袁纥). Under the leadership of Pusa (菩萨), son of chief Tejian (特健), the Huihe co-cooperated with the Xueyantuo to make a stand against the Eastern Qaghanate. Soon after his death, his successor Tumidu (吐迷度) formed a new alliance with the Chinese and turned against his former ally. Thereafter, Tumidu was granted a Chinese title like the rest of the Tiele chiefs, and carried the title of qaghan among the other tribes, who now annually donated furs to the Chinese to fulfill their tax obligations.^[69]

In 648, Tumidu was murdered by his nephew Wuhe (乌纥) and another tribesman named Juluobo (俱罗勃). Both were son-in-laws of the Chebi Khan, the ruler of the Eastern Qaghanate at the northern Altai, who now held hegemony over the surrounding tribes, including the Qarluq. This alerted the Chinese, and Wuhe was assasinated by a ruse upon receiving his uncle's position from the Chinese deputy in the north. Later Juluobo was detained by the Chinese. On November 17, Porun (婆闰) was granted his fathers title.^[70]

Since their submission, the Tiele (mainly the Huihe) had participated in several campaigns under Chinese leadership. Under the command of Ashina Sheer (阿史那社尔), Yuan Lichen (元礼臣), Gao Kan (高侃), Liang Jianfang (梁建方), Cheng Zhijie (程知节), Su Ding Fang and Xiao Siya (萧嗣业) this resulted in the capture of Chebi Khan in 650 and the end of the Western Qaghanate in 657, except for a last campaign at Goguryeo which probably killed Porun.^[71][72]

During those campaigns, visits would be paid to restrain the tribes. In 658 such a visit was repelled, and a revolt broke out in 660 starting with the Sijie (思结), Bayegu (拔野古), Pugu (仆骨) and Tongluo (同罗). The reason for this revolt is unclear, perhaps due to the Chinese repression of the surrounding tribes during the campaigns.^[73] Two years later the revolts were suppressed by the Chinese at the upper Selenge River around Khangai. The battle was short, and a massacre was said to be committed by the two leading commanders. According to one exaggerated account from Tang Huiyao around 900,000 surrendered tribesmen were slaughtered, though it is certain that a large number of them were captured.^[74] After the event, a message was sent to the north to appease the restless Tiele.

In 669 similar unsuccessful revolts had been made by the Xueyantuo, but the details of these are vague.^[75] The last revolt was mentioned in 686, lead by the Pugu and Tongluo to join with the Ashina clan, who had formed the Second Turkic Eastern Qaghanate under Ilteris Sad in 682. They were immediately suppressed by an army dispatched from Juyan. A number of them were moved to that region along with the seat of the protectorate under the jurisdiction of Ganzhou. Earlier during the rebellion contacts between the northern protectorate and the Chinese capital were cut off, and the only way to pass was through the area of Suzhou.^[76]

[edit] Rise of the Uyghur Qaghanate

After the disintegration of the Eastern Qaghanate in 630, many Turkish nobles were resettled either at the Chinese border or in the capital. Some went on to participate in frontier campaigns for the Chinese.^[77][78]

In 679 a major rebellion was led by three Turkish nobles. Among them, Ashina Nishufu (阿史那泥熟匐), a direct descendant of Illig, was chosen as their qaghan. They were quickly subdued by the Chinese and their leader was betrayed and killed by his own troops. The rest of the Turks managed to escape and allied themselves with Ashina Funian (阿史那伏念) for a new rebellion. Funian declared himself qaghan in 681, but his revolt did not succeed and more than fifty participants were executed on November 16 at the Chinese capital.^[79][80] The remaining rebellious Turks formed the Second Turkic Eastern Qaghanate under Ilteris Sad and his 5,000 supporters. They were mostly active in the southern region bordering China at mount Čoγay (总材山). Over the decade they held countless raids across the Chinese border.^[81]

Exactly when or how the Tiele came under their subjection is unclear. However, during this period, a number of pro-Chinese Tiele groups who had earlier co-corporated with the Chinese against them, such as Huihe, Qibi, Sijie and Hun (浑), escaped into the Hexi corridor and eventually resettled to Liangzhou.

According to the Tonyukuk and Kültigin Orkhon script, the Turks made five out of forty-seven attacks on the Oguz (Tiele) who were led by Ilteris. Among them, four seem to have been mere raids while the last attack could be seen as their re-subjection on the northern steppe. The estimated date for the Tiele submission to the Göktürks would be around 687, probably without much resistance.^[82]

The establishment of a second Göktürk capital at the foot of the sacred mountain Ötüken (都斤山) brought unrest to the Tiele tribes. After the Huihe chief was killed, they were recruited for their annual raiding campaigns over the Chinese border after 694.^[83] These raids were halted in 708, as the Chinese constructed fortifications along the Ordos. Raids continued elsewhere as Qapagan turned his attention to the west and the Turgesh and Qarluq tribes between 708 and 715. By this time, some of the Tiele had escaped into China and were settled in Lingzhou and elsewhere, while others like the the Bayegu had revolted in 707. These revolts continued until 716 and Qapagan, on his way back from suppressing revolts by the Huihe, Tongluo, Baixi, Bayegu and Pugu, was ambushed and killed by a Bayegu tribesman named Xiezhilue (颉质略) on July 22. In conclusion, not all tribes were involved in the revolts. Two of the northernmost tribal allies, the Guligan and Dubo (都播) did not participate in any of the revolts.^[84][85]

Soon, Bilge Khan took over the reign and together with Tonyukuk, began to appease the subjected Tiele. Tonyukuk was born in China and was considered a wise statesman in both Turkic and Chinese accounts. Meanwhile, a friendly relationship was built with the Chinese. Till the end of the Second Eastern Qaghanate only one raid in 720 was made on the Chinese border. Bilge Khan started to call for a return of the former members of the Tiele tribes who had settled in China. He had risen in status among the tribal chiefs, especially the Huihe within the Qaghanate.^[86]

During this period, many Tiele had betrayed the local Chinese authorities and fled to the north, in particular the five communities around Liang, Ling, Xia, Feng, and Bingzhou, while minor insurgencies had occurred throughout the process.^[87] Among the returning Tiele tribes was the Huihu, specifically the Yaoluoge, who had escaped into China until 727. The Yaoluoge consisted one of nine^[88] clans of Huihu, and had dominated probably for six^[89] generations since the fall of Xueyantuo.

After Bilge Khan was poisoned, there were factional struggles within the ruling clan. Within a few years, an alliance was established between the Basmyl (拔悉蜜), Uyghur or Huihu and Qarluq. They overthrew the Göktürks and killed the qaghan. Most of the heirs were killed subsequently. At the same time the Basmyl chief, who was approved as qaghan, was overthrown by the allies.

In 745 the exiled qaghan of the Göktürks was killed by an Uyghur chief named Qutlugh Boyla, son of Hushu (护输). He founded the new Qaghanate under the title of Qutlugh Bilge Köl Qaghan. The name "Tiele", and the "nine allies (of Tiele)" (九姓) or Toquz Oguz (based on the interpretation of scholar Cen Zhongmian in the late 1950s) is not mentioned afterwards, and was probably replaced by the name Huihu in historic records. From then on the Huihu consisted of seven^[90] former Tiele tribes and two^[91] new tribes, while eight^[92] former Tiele tribal names had now disappeared.^[93]

[edit] The On Oq Connection

For the origin of the On Oq (Ten Arrows) two contradicting accounts are given:^[94][95]

In the beginning [after 552], Shidianmi [Istämi] followed the Shanyu [Qaghan] and commanded the ten great chiefs. Together with their 100,000 soldiers, he marched to the Western Regions and subdued the barbarian statelets. There he declared himself as qaghan, under the title of ten tribes, and ruled them [the western barbarians] for generations.

—Tongdian, 193 and Jiu Tangshu, 194

Soon [after 635], Dielishi Qaghan [of the Western Göktürks] divided his state into ten parts, and each was headed by one man, together they made up the ten she [shad]. Every she is given an arrow by him, thus they were known as the ten arrows. He also divided the ten arrows into two factions, each consisted of five arrows. The left [east] faction consisted of five Duoliu [Duolu] tribes, headed by five chuo [qur] separately. The right [west] faction consisted of five Nushibi tribes, headed by five sijin [irkin] separately. Each took command on one arrow and called themselves as the ten arrows. Thereafter, each arrow was also known as one tribe, and the great arrow head as the great chief. The five Duoliu tribes inhabited to east of Suiye [water] (Chu River), and the five Nushibi tribes to the west of it. Since then, they called themselves as the ten tribes.

—Tongdian, 193 and Jiu Tangshu, 194

The first statement dates their origin back to the beginning of the First Turkic Qaghanate with Istämi, younger brother of Tumen, who had brought with him the ten tribes probably from the Eastern Qaghanate at Mongolia and left to the west to expand the Qaghanate. The exact date for the event was not recorded, and the shanyu here referred to might be Muhan Khan.

The second statement contributes it to Dielishi, who took over the throne in 635 and began to strengthen the state by further affirming the initial ten tribes and two tribal wings, in contrast with the rotation of rule between the Tumen (through Apa) and Istämi (through Tardu) lineages in the Western Qaghanate. Thereafter, the name "ten tribes" (十姓) became as a shortened address for the Western Turks in Chinese records. However it should be noted that those divisions did not include the five^[96] major tribes, who were active further east of the ten tribes.^[97][98]

The earlier tribes consisted of eight primary tribes ruled by ten chiefs-in-command, afterwards called the on (ten) oq (arrows) (十箭). They were the five^[99] Duolu (咄陆) tribes, and the three^[100] Nushipi (弩失毕) tribes. The relationships between the ten tribes and the ruling elites were divided into two groups. The more aristocratic Duolu tribes, whom held the title qur, and the lower-rated Nushipi in west, who were probably initially made up of Tiele conscripts.^[101][102] During the reformation the more powerful Nushipi tribes such as A-Xijie and Geshu were sub-divided into two tribal groups with a greater and lesser title under a fixed tribal name.

[edit] Turgesh and Chebishi

The Turgesh were a group of Duolu tribes believed to have originated from the Turuhe tribe, who had appeared earlier on the banks of the Tuul River.

Among them were the Chebishi (车鼻施), who were related to the Qibi tribe. The Qibi were dispersed shortly after the defeat of chief Gelang. In the east they were put under the rule of a tudun (吐屯) named Ashina Hubo (阿史那斛勃), who became known as the Chebi Qaghan.

According to the epigraphy of Qibi Song (契苾嵩), a Tiele mercenary in Chinese service (730), The origin of the Qibi can be traced to the Khangai Mountains prior to their prescense at the Bogda Mountains in the 6^th century. They were related to the Jiepi (解批) of Gaoche, who were situated east of the Fufuluo.^[103]

In 610, Shekui subdued Tashkent, a vassal of Chuluo, and installed his tigin (特勤). He also formed a political marriage with Samarkand and subdued its surrounding cities. On the second year, he defeated Chuluo and established his capital over the Khan Tengri (三弥山).^[104] After his death, his younger brother Tong Yabgu Qaghan took over. During his reign, the Western Qaghanate reached its height of power, reaching toSassanid Persia to the west and Bagram in the south. The capital was moved further west to the springs (千泉) north of Taskent to secure the area beyond.

Tong attacked and occupied Tokharistan (吐火罗), and a royal from the Ashina clan was sent over to command the region. Xuanzang, a contemporary pilgrim who visited the area, related how the Turks had overlorded the country. A later pilgrim, Hyecho, commented that both the ruling elite and troops in the region were the Tujue, whereas the natives were the Hu. Most of the local kings who came under the rule of the Turks at this time were converted to ilteber (颉利发), and supervised by the tudun. According to Chinese sources, under Tong the Turks advanced into the Sassanid empire and killed Khosrau II. His son ascended to the throne but died a year later, and the Turks killed Khosrau II's daughter.

Tong seems to have been known as the Djeboukha-Khan by the Armenian author Moses (of Kaghankatouts).^[105]

In 621 he proposed a marriage alliance with the Chinese and planned an attack on the Eastern Qaghanate in the next winter, but the plan was obstructed by Illig. Another proposal was made in 625, when the Chinese state was under heavy attack.

Due to his failure to expand eastwards, his reputation among the Duolu tribes diminished. Many tribes including the Qarluq defected to the Eastern Qaghanate. In 630, he was murdered by his uncle Sipi, and for decades the Turks struggled among themselves for the throne.^[106]

[edit] Yeniseian Theory

In Zur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft (Concerning Yeniseian-Indian Primal Relationship), the German scholar, Heinrich Werner developed a new language family which he termed Baikal-Siberic. By extension, he groups together the Yeniseian peoples (Arin, Assan, Yugh, Ket, Kott, and Pumpokol), the Na-Dene Indians, and the Ding-ling folk of the ancient Chinese chronicles to Proto-Dingling. According to Russian linguistic experts, these Proto-Dinglings likely spoke a polysynthetic or synthetic language with an active typology, exhibiting a linguistically and culturally unified community.

The linguistic comparison of Na-Dene and Yeniseian shows that the quantity and character of the correspondences points to a common origin (Urverwandtschaft). Ding-ling can be seen to resemble both (1), the Yeniseian word *dzheng people > Ket de?ng, Yug dyeng, Kott cheang; and (2), the Na-Dene word *ling or *hling people, ie. as manifested in the name of the Tlingit (properly hling-git son of man, child of the people).

[edit] Rulers of Gaoche

Family names and given name	Durations of reigns
Family name and given name
阿伏至羅 Āfúzhìluó	487-503
跋利延 Bálìyán	503-505
彌俄突 Mí'étú	505-516
伊匐 Yīfú	516-524
越居 Yuèjū	524-536
比造 Bǐzào	536-540
去賓 Qùbīn	540-541

[edit] See also

• Wei (Dingling)
• List of indigenous peoples of Russia

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (November 2007)

[edit] References

[edit] Primary sources

[edit] Secondary sources

• Duan, Lianqin (1988). "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele". Shanghai: Shanghai People's Press. ISBN 7-208-00110-3.
• Li, Jihe (2003). "A Research on Migration of Northwestern Minorities Between pre-Qin to Sui and Tang". Beijing: Nationalities Press. ISBN 7-105-05908-7.
• Lu, Simian [1934] (1996). "A History of Ethnic Groups in China". Beijing: Oriental Press. ISBN 7-5060-0735-5.
• Pulleyblank, Edwin G (2002). "Central Asia and Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China". Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-86078-859-8.
• Trever, Camilla (1932). "Excavations in Northern Mongolia (1924-1925)". Leningrad: J. Fedorov Printing House. OCLC 2566311.
• Shen, Youliang (1998). "A Research on Northern Ethnic Groups and Regimes". Beijing: Central Nationalities University Press. ISBN 7-81056-131-6.
• Suribadalaha (1986). "New Studies of the Origins of the Mongols". Beijing: Nationalities Press. OCLC 19390448.
• Wang, Xiaofu (1992). "Political Relationship Between the Chinese, Tibetan and Arab". Beijing: Peking University Press. ISBN 7-301-01962-9.
• Xue, Zongzheng (1992). "A History of Turks". Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press. ISBN 7-5004-0432-8.
• Zhang, Bibo, and Dong, Guoyao (2001). "Cultural History of Ancient Northern Ethnic Groups in China". Harbin: Heilongjiang People's Press. ISBN 7-207-03325-7.
• The Peoples of the West, from the Weilue, by Yu Huan