Bastarnae

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Map of the Roman empire and contemporary indigenous Europe in Ad 125, showing the location of the Bastarnae, divided into two groups. The smaller group, inhabiting the delta of the Danube and its northern environs, was known as the Peucini.

The Bastarnae or Basternae were an ancient tribal group of probably mixed Celtic and Germanic origin which, between not later than 200 BC and until at least 300 AD, inhabited the region between the eastern Carpathian mountains and the Dnieper river (corresponding to the modern Republic of Moldova and western part of southern Ukraine). A branch of the Bastarnae, called the Peucini by Greco-Roman writers, occupied a part of the Danube river delta.

Although possibly Celtic-speaking in 179 BC, the Bastarnae probably were Germanic in language and culture during the 1st century AD, but appear to have become assimilated by their neighbouring Sarmatians by the 3rd century. Like the latter, they were probably semi-nomadic. It has not yet been possible to identify specific Bastarnae archaeological sites.

The Peucini branch of the Bastarnae first came into conflict with the Romans in the 1st century BC, when they resisted, ultimately unsuccessfully, Roman expansion into Moesia, the region on the southern bank of the Danube. Although probably on friendly terms with the Romans in the early 1st century, there is little evidence of the Peucini until ca. 180, when they are recorded as participating in an invasion of Roman territory in alliance with Sarmatian and Dacian elements. In the mid 3rd century, the Bastarnae were part of a Gothic-led grand coalition of lower Danube tribes which inflicted immense damage on the Balkan provinces of the Roman empire in a series of massive invasions. Large numbers of Bastarnae were resettled within the empire in the late 3rd century.

[edit] Name etymology

The origin of the tribal name is uncertain. One possible derivation is from the proto-Germanic word *bastjan (from proto-Indo-European root word *b^has) means "binding" or "tie".^[1] In this case, Bastarnae may have had the original meaning of an alliance or bund of tribes. It is possible that the Roman term basterna, denoting a type of wagon or litter, is derived from the name of this tribe, which was known, like many Germanic tribes, to travel with a wagon-train for their families.^[2]

[edit] Ethno-linguistic affiliation

Livy, the Roman historian, writing in ca. 10 AD, may imply that the Bastarnae were of Celtic origin. Relating events of ca. 180 BC, he describes them then as "similar in language and customs" to the Scordisci, a tribe of Illyria described as Celtic by Strabo (although he adds that they had mingled with Illyrians and Thracians).^[3] Livy also names their king, Cotto.^[4] This name is possibly of Celtic derivation (cf. Cottius, king of the Alpine Salassi tribe and friend of Augustus, after whom were named the Alpes Cottiae Roman province and the Cotini Celtic tribe of the northern Carpathians. Both prob. derived from cotto- = "old" or "crooked").^[5] It is possible that the Bastarnae were originally a mixed Celto-Germanic group.^[6] If so, they may have originally comprised residual Celtic elements in central eastern Europe such as the Cotini, who formed a Celtic enclave in the Germanic-speaking zone and are described by Tacitus as iron-ore miners working as tributaries of the powerful Quadi Germanic people.^[7]

In any case, other Greco-Roman writers of the 1st century AD are unanimous that the Bastarnae were, in their own time, Germanic in language and culture. The Greek geographer Strabo, writing ca. 5-20 AD, says the Bastarnae are "of Germanic stock", although he includes the non-Germanic Roxolani, a Sarmatian tribe, among the sub-tribes of the Bastarnae (probably in error).^[8] The Roman geographer Pliny the Elder (ca. 77 AD), refers to "Bastarnae and other Germans".^[9] The Roman historian Tacitus (ca. 100 AD), states: "The Peucini, however, who are sometimes called Bastarnae, are like Germans in their language, way of life and types of dwelling and live in similar squalor and indolence...[However] mixed marriages are giving them to some extent the vile appearance of the Sarmatians."^[10]

In the 3rd century, however, the Greek historian Dio Cassius states that the "Bastarnae are properly classed as Scythians" and "members of the Scythian race".^[11] Likewise, the 6th century historian Zosimus, reporting events around 280 AD, refers to "the Bastarnae, a Scythian people".^[12] It is possible that the miscegenation mentioned by Tacitus had, by the 3rd century, resulted in the Bastarnae becoming assimilated by the Sarmatians, perhaps adopting their tongue (which belonged to the Iranic group of Indo-European languages) and/or Sarmatian customs. On the other hand, the Bastarnae maintained a separate name-identity into the late 3rd century AD, possibly implying retention of their Germanic cultural heritage, distinctive in the lower Danube, until the arrival of the Goths.^[13]

[edit] Territory

A view of the Danube delta, showing the kind of swampy terrain originally inhabited by the Peucini branch of the Bastarnae

Map showing the extent of the Chernyakhov culture (in orange) in the 3rd century, and the peoples involved, including the Bastarnae

It is generally assumed by scholars that the Bastarnae's original home was around the Vistula river (central Poland) and that they migrated south-eastwards to the Black Sea region around 200 BC (as, 400 years later, did the Gothic ethnos).^[14]

Strabo describes the Bastarnae territory vaguely as "between the Ister (r. Danube) and the Borysthenes (r. Dnieper)". He identifies three sub-tribes of the Bastarnae: the Atmoni, Sidoni and Peucini. The latter derived their name from Peuce, a large island in the Danube delta which they had colonised.^{[15] a[›]} The 2nd- century geographer Ptolemy states that the Carpiani (Carpi) (believed to have occupied Moldavia, Rom.) separated the Peucini from the other Bastarnae "above Dacia".^[16] The consensus among modern scholars is that the Bastarnae were, in the 2nd century, divided into two main groups. The larger group inhabited the north-eastern slopes of the Carpathians and the area between the Prut and Dnieper rivers (Moldova Republic/W Ukraine), while a separate smaller group (the Peucini) dwelt in and North of the Danube delta region. Only the Peucini, therefore, were situated on the border of the Roman empire, that is, on the extreme northern border of the province of Moesia Inferior, which ran along the southernmost branch of the Danube delta.^[17]

[edit] Material culture

It is uncertain whether the Bastarnae were sedentary or nomadic (or semi-nomadic). Tacitus' statement that they were "German in their way of life and types of dwelling" implies a sedentary bias, but their close relations with the Sarmatians, who were nomadic, may indicate a more nomadic lifestyle, as does the wide geographical range of their attested inhabitation.^[18]

It has not to date been possible to identify individual archaeological sites as belonging to the Bastarnae, because no convincing typology of Bastarnae artefacts exists. It has been suggested that the Bastarnae are an especially good match, in location and in time, for the Zarubintsy culture, despite the fact that it was centred somewhat to the North of the main area of Bastarnae residence. This culture, which flourished in the upper Dnieper and Pripyat rivers between ca. 300 BC and 200 AD, was sedentary, based on agriculture and the rearing of livestock. Its cultural artefacts show strong influences from the western steppe (i.e. Sarmatian influence) and, in a later phase, from the Roman Danubian provinces. But the Zarubintsy culture has also been "claimed" for the Venedi tribe, who are regarded by many scholars as proto-Slavic - although even this is uncertain.^[19] In reality, it is not possible, on the current state of knowledge, to ascribe the Zarubintsy culture to any individual ethno-linguistic group. It is likely that Zarubintsy represents a wide range of peoples in the Poland- W. Ukraine region (possibly including the Bastarnae).^[20]

Starting in about 200 AD, the Chernyakhov culture became established in the W. Ukraine/Moldova region inhabited by the Bastarnae. The culture is characterised by a high degree of sophistication in the production of metal and ceramic artefacts, as well as of uniformity over a vast area. Although this culture has conventionally been identified with the migration of the Gothic ethnos into the region from the Northwest, Todd argues that its most important origin is Scytho-Sarmatian. Although the Goths certainly contributed to it, so probably did other peoples of the region such as the Dacians, proto-Slavs, Carpi, and possibly the Bastarnae.^[21]

[edit] Conflict with Rome

[edit] Roman republican era (to 30 BC)

[edit] Allies of Philip of Macedon (179-8 BC)

Map of Thrace and Moesia showing prominent tribes. The border line shows the extent of the independent Odrysian kingdom of Thrace in the 4th century BC. However, Thrace proper extended only as far as the Haemus (Balkan) mountains, North of which was the land called Moesia

Silver tetradrachm of Philip V of Macedon. British Museum, London

The Bastarnae first appear in the historical record in 179 BC, when they crossed the Danube in massive force (probably ca. 60,000 men, both cavalry and infantry, plus a wagon-train of accompanying women and children), invited by king Philip V of Macedon, a direct descendant of Antigonus, one of Alexander the Great's generals. The latter had suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Romans in the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC), which had reduced him from a powerful Hellenistic monarch to the status of a petty client-king with a much-reduced territory and a tiny army.^b[›] After nearly 20 years of slavish adherence to the Roman Senate's dictats, Philip had been goaded beyond endurance by the incessant and devastating raiding of the Dardani, a warlike Illyrian tribe on his northern border, which his army was too small to counter effectively. Using the Bastarnae, with whom he had forged friendly relations in earlier times, he plotted a strategy to deal with the Dardani and then to regain his lost territories in Greece and his political independence. First, he would unleash the Bastarnae against the Dardani. After the latter had been crushed, Philip planned to settle Bastarnae families in Dardania (S. Kosovo/Skopje region), to ensure that the region was permanently subdued. In a second phase, Philip aimed to launch the Bastarnae on an invasion of Italy via the Adriatic coast. Although he knew that the Bastarnae were hardly likely to emulate the success of Hannibal's invasion some 40 years earlier, Philip hoped that the Romans would be distracted long enough to allow him to reoccupy his former possessions in Greece.^[22]

But Philip, now 60 years of age, died before the Bastarnae arrived. The Bastarnae host was still en route through Thrace, where it became embroiled in hostilities with the locals, who were unable (or unwilling) to provide them with sufficient food at affordable prices as they marched through. Probably in the vicinity of Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulg.), the Bastarnae broke out of their marching columns and pillaged the land far and wide. The terrified local Thracians took refuge with their families and animal herds on the slopes of Mount Donuca, the highest mountain in Thrace (Mt. Musala, Rila Mts., Bulg.). A large force of Bastarnae chased them up the mountain, but were driven back and scattered by a massive hailstorm and then ambushed by the Thracians. Their descent became a panic-stricken rout. Back at their wagon-laager in the plain, a large number of Bastarnae decided to return home, leaving 30,000 to press on to Macedonia.^[23]

Philip's son and successor Perseus deployed them in winter quarters in a valley in Dardania. But their camp was attacked in the depths of winter by the Dardani. The Bastarnae easily beat off the attackers, chased them back to their chief town, and besieged them. But they were surprised in the rear by a second force of Dardani who had approached their camp by mountain paths and lost their entire baggage and supplies. They were obliged to withdraw from Dardania and to return home. Most perished as they crossed the frozen Danube on foot, only for the ice to give way.^[24] Despite the failure of Philip's Bastarnae strategy, the suspicion aroused by these events in the Roman Senate, which had been warned by the Dardani of the Bastarnae invasion, contributed heavily to the demise of Macedonia as an independent state.^[25] Rome declared war on Perseus in 171 BC and after the latter's army was crushed at the Battle of Pydna (168 BC), Macedonia was split up into 4 Roman puppet-cantons (167 BC).^[26] 21 years later, these were in turn abolished and annexed to the Roman Republic as the province of Macedonia (146 BC).

[edit] Allies of Getan high king Burebista (62 BC)

Map of Scythia Minor (Dobruja), showing the Greek coastal cities of Histria, Tomis, Callatis and Dionysopolis (Istria, Constanţa, Mangalia and Balchik)

Coin issued by the Greek coastal city of Histria (Sinoe)

The Bastarnae first came into direct conflict with Rome as a result of expansion into the lower Danube region by the proconsuls (governors) of Macedonia in the period 75-72 BC. Gaius Scribonius Curio (proconsul 75-3 BC) campaigned successfully against the Dardani and the Moesi, becoming the first Roman general to reach the Danube river with his army.^[27] His successor, Marcus Licinius Lucullus (brother of the famous Lucius Lucullus), campaigned against the Thracian Bessi tribe and the Moesi, ravaging the whole of Moesia, the region between the Haemus (Balkan) mountain range and the Danube. In 72 BC, his troops occupied the Greek coastal cities of Scythia Minor (mod. Dobruja region, Romania/Bulgaria),^c[›] which had sided with Rome's Hellenistic arch-enemy, king Mithridates VI of Pontus, in the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BC).^[28]

The presence of Roman forces in the Danube delta was seen as a major threat by all the neighbouring transdanubian peoples: the Peucini Bastarnae, the Sarmatians and, most importantly, by Burebista (ruled 82-44 BC), king of the Getae, a Dacian- or Thracian-speaking people.^d[›] Burebista had unified the Getan tribes into a single kingdom, which included the Wallachian plain and Scythia Minor - the Greek cities were thus vital trade outlets for the Getan kingdom. In addition, he had established his hegemony over the neighbouring Sarmatians and Bastarnae. At its peak, the Getan kingdom reportedly was able to muster 200,000 warriors. Burebista led his transdanubian coalition in a struggle against Roman encroachment, conducting many raids against Roman allies in Moesia and Thrace, penetrating as far as Macedonia and Illyria.^[29]

The coalition's main chance came in 62 BC, when the Greek cities rebelled against Roman rule. In 61 BC, the notoriously oppressive and militarily incompetent proconsul of Macedonia, Gaius Antonius, nicknamed Hybrida ("The Monster", uncle of the famous Mark Antony) led an army against the Greek cities. As his army approached Histria (Sinoe), Antonius left his infantry without cavalry cover as he detached his entire mounted force from the marching column. Dio implies that he did so out of cowardice, in order to avoid the imminent clash with the opposition, but it is more likely that he was pursuing an enemy force, possibly a decoy. A Bastarnae host, which had crossed the Danube to assist the Histrians, promptly attacked, surrounded and massacred the Roman infantry, capturing several of their vexilla (military standards).^[30] This battle resulted in the collapse of the Roman position on the lower Danube. Burebista annexed the Greek cities (55-48 BC).^[31] At the same time, the subjugated "allied" tribes of Moesia and Thrace evidently repudiated their treaties with Rome, as they had to be reconquered under Augustus in 29-8 BC (see below).

Roman dictator-for-life Julius Caesar planned a major campaign against Burebista and his allies for 44 BC, but was assassinated before it could start.^[32] However, the campaign was made redundant by the overthrow and death of Burebista in the same year, after which his Getan empire fragmented into 4, then 5 independent kingdoms. These were militarily far weaker, as Strabo assessed their collective military potential at just 40,000 armed men, and were often involved in internecine warfare.^[33][34] The Dacians did not again become a threat to Roman hegemony in the lower Danube until the rise of Decebal 130 years later (86 AD).

[edit] Augustan era (30 BC - 14 AD)

Statue of Augustus in the garb of Roman imperator (military supreme commander). By the end of his sole rule (14 AD), Augustus had expanded the empire to the line of the Danube river, which was to remain its central/eastern European border for its entire history (except for the occupation of Dacia 105-275). Musei Vaticani, Rome

Once he had established himself as sole ruler of the Roman state in 30 BC, Caesar's grand-nephew and adopted son Augustus inaugurated a strategy of advancing the empire's southeastern European border to the line of the Danube from the Alps, the Dinaric Alps and Macedonia, primarily to increase strategic depth between the border and Italy and to provide a major fluvial supply-route between the Roman armies in the region.^[35] On the lower Danube, which was given priority over the upper Danube, this required the annexation of Moesia and Thrace; the latter, however, was spared annexation as it was in the hands of a friendly king. ^e[›] The Romans' target were thus the tribes which inhabited Moesia, namely (from West to East) the Triballi, Moesi and those Getae who dwelt South of the Danube. The Bastarnae were also a target because they had recently subjugated the Triballi, whose territory lay on the southern bank of the Danube between the tributary rivers Ubus (Vit) and Ciabrus (Tsibritsa), with their chief town at Oescus (Gigen, Bulg.).^[36] In addition, Augustus wanted to avenge the defeat of C. Antonius 32 years before and to recover the lost standards, which Roman intelligence had located as held at Genucla (Isaccea, nr. Tulcea, Rom.), in the Danube delta region, a fortress controlled by Zyraxes, the local Getan king.^[37] The man selected for the task was Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Crassus the triumvir and an experienced general at 33 years of age, who was appointed proconsul of Macedonia in 29 BC.^[38]

The Bastarnae provided the casus belli by crossing the Haemus and attacking the Denteleti, who were Roman allies. Crassus marched to the Dentheleti's assistance, but the Bastarnae host withdrew over the Haemus at his approach. Crassus followed them closely into Moesia but they would not be drawn into battle, withdrawing beyond the Tsibritsa.^[39] Crassus now turned his attention to the Moesi, his prime target. After a successful campaign which resulted in the submission of a large part of the Moesi, Crassus again sought out the Bastarnae. Discovering their location from some peace envoys they had sent to him, he lured them into battle near the Tsibritsa by a stratagem. Hiding his main body of troops in a wood, he stationed as bait a smaller force of scouts in open ground before the wood. As expected, the Bastarnae attacked the scout troop in force, only to find themselves entangled in the full-scale pitched battle with the Romans that they had tried to avoid. The Bastarnae tried to retreat into the forest but were hampered by the wagon-train carrying their women and children, as these could not move through the trees. Trapped into fighting to save their families, the Bastarnae were routed. Crassus personally killed their king, Deldo, in combat, a feat which qualified for Rome's highest military honour, spolia opima ("bountiful spoils"). But Crassus was denied the honour by Augustus on a technicality.^f[›] Thousands of fleeing Bastarnae perished, many asphyxiated in nearby woods by encircling fires set by the Romans, others drowned trying to swim across the Danube. Nevertheless, a substantial force did escape over the river and dug themselves into a powerful hillfort. Crassus had to enlist the assistance of Rholes, the Getan king who ruled on the opposite bank, to dislodge them, for which service Rholes was granted the title of socius et amicus populi Romani ("ally and friend of the Roman people").^[40]

The following year (28 BC), Crassus marched on Genucla. King Zyraxes travelled into Scythia with his treasure to seek aid from the Bastarnae and Sarmatians.^[41] But before he was able to bring reinforcements, Genucla fell to a Roman land and fluvial assault.^[42] The strategic result of Crassus' campaigns was the permanent annexation of Moesia by Rome (although Moesia was not detached from Macedonia to form a separate province until 6 AD).^[43]

[edit] Roman imperial era (14 - 180)

The Res Gestae Divi Augusti ("Acts of the divine Augustus"), a self-congratulatory inscription commissioned by Augustus to list his achievements, states that he received an embassy from the Bastarnae seeking a treaty of friendship.^[44] These would most likely have been the Peucini, who bordered on the empire. Such a treaty was seemingly remarkably effective, as the Bastarnae virtually disappear from the Roman chronicles until ca. 175 AD, some 160 years after the inscription was carved. But it should be stressed that the fragmentary nature of the evidence does not permit the conclusion that the Bastarnae did not engage in hostilities against the Roman empire during that enormous time-span. That view is at least arguable until ca. 70 AD, a period when the main Roman military operations are reasonably well-covered by the works of Tacitus, which contain only a single passing mention of the Bastarnae.^[45] But beyond that date, Tacitus' account of the Flavian period (70-96) is lost, as is Ammianus Marcellinus's continuation of Tacitus' work until 353. (Even Dio's inferior account is lost, except a cursory and fragmentary summary). As a consequence, the available evidence for a period when the focus of Roman military operations shifted from the Rhine to the lower Danube is very thin. It would be surprising if the Bastarnae had no involvement, on either side or on both, in the Dacian Wars of Domitian (r. 81-96) and Trajan (r. 98-117), since these took place in their region. But there is no evidence that they were involved. In the late 2nd century, the Historia Augusta mentions that in the rule of Marcus Aurelius (161-80), an alliance of lower Danube tribes including the Bastarnae, the Roxolani and the Dacian Costoboci took advantage of the emperor's difficulties on the upper Danube (the Marcomannic Wars) to attack Roman territory.^[46]

[edit] 3rd century

During the late 2nd century, the main ethnic change in the northern Black sea region was the immigration, from the Vistula valley in the North, of the Goths and other accompanying tribes such as the Taifali and Asdingi. This migration was part of a series of major population movements in the European barbaricum (the Roman term for regions outside their empire). The Goths appear to have established a loose political hegemony over the existing tribes in the region, or at least to have played a leading role in a series of major invasions of the empire launched by a grand coalition of lower Danubian tribes from ca. 238 onwards. The participation of the Bastarnae in these is likely but largely unspecified, due to Zosimus' and other chroniclers' tendency to lump all these tribes under the general term "Scythians" - meaning all the inhabitants of Scythia, rather than the specific people called the Scythians.^[47] Thus, in 250-1, the Bastarnae were probably involved in the Gothic and Sarmatian invasions which culminated in the Roman defeat at the Battle of Abrittus and the slaying of the emperor Decius (251). This disaster was the start of the Third Century Crisis, a period of military and economic collapse which came close to destroying the empire. At this critical moment, the Roman army was crippled by the outbreak of a second smallpox pandemic, the plague of Cyprian (251-70). The effects are described by Zosimus as even worse than the earlier Antonine plague (166-80), which probably killed 15-30% of the empire's inhabitants.^[48]

Taking advantage of Roman military disarray, a vast number of barbarian peoples overran much of the empire. The Sarmato-Gothic alliance of the lower Danube carried out major invasions of the Balkans region in 252, and in the periods 253-8 and 260-8.^[49] The Peucini Bastarnae are specifically mentioned in the 267/8 invasion, when the coalition built a fleet in the estuary of the river Tyras (Dnieper). The Peucini Bastarnae would have been critical to this venture since, as coastal and delta dwellers, they would have had seafaring experience that the nomadic Sarmatians and Goths lacked. The barbarians sailed along the Black Sea coast to Tomis in Moesia Inferior, which they tried to take by assault without success. They then attacked the provincial capital Marcianopolis (Devnya, Bulg.), also in vain. Sailing on through the Bosporus, the expedition laid siege to Thessalonica in northern Greece. Driven off by Roman forces, the coalition host moved overland into Thracia, where it was destroyed by emperor Claudius II (r. 268-70) in two successive battles, at Nessos and Naissus (269).^[50]

[edit] Ultimate fate

Claudius II was the first of sequence of military emperors who restored order in the empire in the late 3rd century. These emperors followed a policy of large-scale resettlement within the empire of defeated barbarian tribes, granting them land in return for an obligation of military service much heavier than the usual conscription quota. The policy had the triple benefit, from the Roman point of view, of weakening the hostile tribe, repopulating the plague-ravaged frontier provinces (bringing their abandoned fields back into cultivation) and providing a pool of first-rate recruits for the army. But it could also be popular with the barbarian prisoners, who were often delighted by the prospect of a land grant within the empire. In the 4th century, such communities were known as laeti.^[51] The emperor Probus (r. 276-82) is recorded as resettling 100,000 Bastarnae in Moesia, in addition to other peoples (Goths, Gepids and Vandals). The Bastarnae are reported to have honoured their oath of allegiance to the emperor, while the other resettled peoples mutinied while Probus was distracted by usurpation attempts and ravaged the Danubian provinces far and wide. Probus was obliged to undertake a costly campaign to subdue them.^[52][53] A further massive transfer of Bastarnae was carried out by emperor Diocletian (ruled 284-305) after he and his colleague Galerius defeated a coalition of Bastarnae and Carpi in 299.^[54]. Such numbers may have amounted to a substantial proportion, if not all, of the Peucini Bastarnae: Victor claims that the Carpi resettled in Pannonia by Diocletian at the same time, together with those previously transferred by Aurelian, amounted to the entire Carpi tribe.^[55]

The remaining Bastarnae of the Ukraine disappear into obscurity in the late empire. Neither of the main ancient sources for this period, Ammianus Marcellinus and Zosimus, mention the Bastarnae in their accounts of the 4th century, possibly implying the loss of their separate identity, presumably subsumed into the neighbouring Sarmatians or Goths. If the Bastarnae remained an identifiable group, it is highly likely that they participated in the vast Gothic-led migration, driven by Hunnic pressure, that was admitted into Moesia by emperor Valens in 376 and eventually defeated and killed Valens at Adrianople in 378. Zosimus consistently refers to the migrants as "Scythians" (unlike Ammianus, who refers to them as "Goths"), specifically stating at one point that, in addition, "Goths, Taifali and other tribes" were involved.^[56]

However, after a gap of 150 years, there is a final mention of Bastarnae in the mid 5th century. In 451, the Hunnic leader Attila invaded Gaul with a large army which was ultimately routed at the Battle of Chalons by a Roman-led coalition under the general Aetius.^[57] Attila's host, according to Jordanes, included contingents from the "innumerable tribes that had been brought under his sway."^[58] One such were the Bastarnae, according to the Gallic nobleman Sidonius Apollinaris.^[59] But the accuracy of Sidonius' list of Hunnic allies is doubtful, as he also gives the names of two Scythian tribes (the Neuri and Geloni) that were last mentioned in Ptolemy's Geographia some three centuries earlier.^[60] According to E.A. Thompson, it is likely that Sidonius, whose purpose was to write a panegyric and not a history, simply added some spurious names to his list, including the Bastarnae. On the other hand, Thompson does accept that some peoples on the list are plausible e.g. Burgundians, Sciri and Franks.^[61]

[edit] Notes

^ a: Peuce island: It is not possible to identify the exact location of this feature both because of the imprecision of ancient sources and the fact that the Danube delta configuration has changed greatly since ancient times, as well as expanding into the sea by ca. 20km. Peuce (from the classical Greek word for "pine") was also the name of a town, most likely on the island. Strabo states the the Danube had 7 mouths, the southernmost of which was known as the Hieron Stoma or "Sacred Mouth". Peuce town lay 120 stadia (ca. 22km) upriver from the "Sacred Mouth".^[62] In other words, Peuce island was not a true island, but delta land delimited by river branches. Strabo's directions, allowing for the advance of the coastline, would place Peuce town near today's Mahmudia (Rom.), if the course of the southernmost branch of the Danube (called the Braţul Sfântu Gheorghe today) has not changed since ancient times.^[63]
^ b: Peace terms after 2nd Macedonian War: The terms imposed on Philip V of Macedon in 196 BC were: (i) loss of all territories in Greece, Thrace and Asia Minor (i.e. Philip's territory was reduced to just Macedonia proper); (ii) army limited to 5,000 men and no elephants; (iii) navy limited to 5 warships plus royal galley; (iv) reparation payment of 1,000 talents (26 tonnes) of silver; (v) prohibited from waging war without the Roman Senate's permission^[64]
^ c: Greek cities of Scythia Minor: These were: Histria (Sinoe), Tomis, Callatis, Apollonia (Istria, Constanţa, Mangalia, Sozopol)^[65]
^ d: Language of the Getae: There is controversy about whether the Getae were Dacian or Thracian speakers and whether those two languages were similar. Strabo claims that the Getans were Thracians.^[66]. He adds that the Dacians spoke the same language as the Getae.^[67] This gave rise to the hypothesis that Thracian and Dacian were essentially the same language (the Daco-Thracian theory). But the modern linguist Vladimir Georgiev disputes that Dacian and Thracian were closely related for various reasons, especially that Dacian and Moesian town names commonly end with the suffix -DAVA, while towns in Thrace proper generally end in -PARA. According to Georgiev, the language spoken by the Getae should be classified as "Daco-Moesian" and regarded as quite distinct from Thracian.^[68] Support for the Daco-Moesian theory can be found in Dio, who confirms that the Moesians and Getae on the south bank of the Danube were Dacians.^[69] But the scant evidence available for these two extinct languages does not permit any firm conclusions. For the dividing-line between the two placename forms, see the following map (lower map, scroll down): [1].
^ e: Roman annexation of Thrace: Thrace, the country between Macedonia and Moesia, was a Roman satellite-state ruled by a friendly native dynasty, the Odrysae. It was eventually annexed in 46 AD, by the emperor Claudius (r. 41-54).^[70]
^ f: Spolia opima: Crassus' feat, as Roman commander, of killing the enemy leader in combat arguably entitled him to the highest honour a Roman soldier could gain: the spolia opima, the right to hang the armour stripped from the enemy leader in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius in Rome, in emulation of the Founder of Rome Romulus, an honour previously granted only twice. But Crassus was denied the honour by Augustus on the technicality that he was not commander-in-chief of Roman forces at the time, a position claimed by Augustus himself.^[71] Augustus also prohibited Crassus from accepting the honorary title of imperator ("supreme commander") from his troops, traditional for victorious generals. Instead, Augustus claimed the title for himself (for the 7th time).^[72][73] Finally, although Dio states that Crassus was voted a Triumph in Rome by the Senate, there is no evidence in inscriptions of that year (27 BC) that it was celebrated. After his return to Rome, Crassus disappears from the record altogether, both epigraphic and literary. This is highly unusual in a relatively well-documented period for a person of such distinction who was still only about 33 years old. His tomb has not been found in the excavated Crassus family mausoleum in Rome. This may imply punitive internal exile to a remote location, similar to that inflicted on the contemporary poet, Ovid, who in AD 8, for an unknown offence, was ordered by Augustus to spend the rest of his life in Tomis (Constanţa) on the Black Sea. Ronald Syme points out the similarity of Crassus' removal from the official record with that of Cornelius Gallus, the contemporary disgraced governor of Egypt, who was recalled by Augustus for assuming inappropriate honours.^[74]

[edit] Citations

[edit] References

[edit] Ancient

• Res Gestae Divi Augusti (ca. 14 AD)
• Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae (ca. 395 AD)
• Dio Cassius Roman History (ca. 230 AD)
• Eutropius Historiae Romanae Breviarium (ca. 360)
• Anonymous Historia Augusta (ca. 400)
• Livy Ab Urbe Condita (ca. 20 AD)
• Jordanes Getica (ca. 550)
• Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia (ca. 70 AD)
• Ptolemy Geographia (ca. 140)
• Sextus Aurelius Victor De Caesaribus (ca. 380)
• Sidonius Apollinaris Carmina (late 5th c.)
• Strabo Geographica (ca. 10 AD)
• Tacitus Annales (ca. 100 AD)
• Tacitus Germania (ca. 100)
• Zosimus Historia Nova (ca. 500)

[edit] Modern

• Barrington (2000): Atlas of the Greek and Roman World
• Crişan, Ion (1978): Burebista and his Time
• Faliyeyev, Alexander (2007): Dictionary of Continental Celtic Placenames (online)
• Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000): Roman Warfare
• Jones, A.H.M. (1964): Later Roman Empire
• Köbler, Gerhard (2000): Indo-Germanisches Wörterbuch (online)
• Thompson, E.A. (1996): The Huns
• Todd, Malcolm (2004): The early Germans
• Wolfram, Herwig (1988): History of the Goths

[edit] See also

• Sarmatians
• Dacians
• Carpi (Dacian tribe)
• Goths